Thorium

Thorium
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90 actinium ← thorium → protactinium
Ce
↑
Th
↓
(Uqn)
Periodic Table - Extended Periodic Table


General
Name, Symbol, Number thorium, Th, 90
Chemical series Actinides
Group, Period, Block n/a, 7, f
Appearance silvery white
Standard atomic weight 232.03806(2)  g·mol−1
Electron configuration [Rn] 6d2 7s2
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 10, 2
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 11.7  g·cm−3
Melting point 2115 K
(1842 °C, 3348 °F)
Boiling point 5061 K
(4788 °C, 8650 °F)
Heat of fusion 13.81  kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 514  kJ·mol−1
Heat capacity (25 °C) 26.230  J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure P(Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 2633 2907 3248 3683 4259 5055

Atomic properties
Crystal structure cubic face centered
Oxidation states 4
(weakly basic oxide)
Electronegativity 1.3 (scale Pauling)
Ionization energies
(more) 1st:  587  kJ·mol−1
2nd:  1110  kJ·mol−1
3rd:  1930  kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius 180  pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering no data
Electrical resistivity (0 °C) 147 nΩ·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 54.0  W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 11.0  µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (20 °C) 2490 m/s
Young's modulus 79  GPa
Shear modulus 31  GPa
Bulk modulus 54  GPa
Poisson ratio 0.27
Mohs hardness 3.0
Vickers hardness 350  MPa
Brinell hardness 400  MPa
CAS registry number 7440-29-1
Selected isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of thorium iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
228Th syn 1.9116 years α 5.520 224Ra
229Th syn 7340 years α 5.168 225Ra
230Th syn 75380 years α 4.770 226Ra
231Th trace 25.5 hours β 0.39 231Pa
232Th 100% 1.405×1010 years α 4.083 228Ra
234Th trace 24.1 days β 0.27 234Pa

References
Thorium (IPA: /ˈθɔːriəm/) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Th and atomic number 90. As a naturally occurring, slightly radioactive metal, it has been considered as an alternative nuclear fuel to uranium.

Contents [hide]
1 Notable characteristics
2 Applications
3 History
4 Occurrence
4.1 Distribution
5 Thorium as a nuclear fuel
6 Isotopes
7 Precautions
8 Thorium Extraction
9 See also
10 References
11 External links



[edit] Notable characteristics
When pure, thorium is a silvery white metal that retains its luster for several months. However, when it is exposed to oxygen, thorium slowly tarnishes in air, becoming grey and eventually black. Thorium dioxide (ThO2), also called thoria, has the highest melting point of any oxide (3300°C)[1]. When heated in air, thorium metal turnings ignite and burn brilliantly with a white light.

Thorium has the largest liquid range of any element: 2946°C (2946 K) between the melting point and boiling point.

See Actinides in the environment for details of the environmental aspects of thorium.


[edit] Applications
Applications of thorium:

As an alloying element in magnesium, used in aircraft engines, imparting high strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures.
Thorium is used to coat tungsten wire used in electronic equipment, improving the electron emission of heated cathodes.
Thorium has been used in gas tungsten arc welding electrodes and heat-resistant ceramics.
Uranium-thorium age dating has been used to date hominid fossils.
As a fertile material for producing nuclear fuel. In particular, the proposed energy amplifier reactor design would employ thorium. Since thorium is more abundant than uranium, some nuclear reactor designs incorporate thorium in their fuel cycle.
Thorium is a very effective radiation shield, although it has not been used for this purpose as much as lead or depleted uranium.
Thorium may be used in nuclear reactors instead of uranium as fuel. This produces less transuranic waste.
Applications of thorium dioxide (ThO2):

Mantles in portable gas lights. These mantles glow with a dazzling light (unrelated to radioactivity) when heated in a gas flame.
Used to control the grain size of tungsten used for electric lamps.
Used for high-temperature laboratory crucibles.
Added to glass, it helps create glasses of a high refractive index and with low dispersion. Consequently, they find application in high-quality lenses for cameras and scientific instruments.
Has been used as a catalyst:
In the conversion of ammonia to nitric acid.
In petroleum cracking.
In producing sulfuric acid.
Thorium dioxide is the active ingredient of Thorotrast, which was used as part of X-ray diagnostics. This use has been abandoned due to the carcinogenic nature of Thorotrast.

[edit] History
M. T. Esmark found a black mineral on Løvøy Island, Norway and gave a sample to Professor Jens Esmark, a noted mineralogist who was not able to identify it so he sent a sample to the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius for examination in 1828.[2] Berzelius analysed it and named it after Thor, the Norse god of thunder. The metal had virtually no uses until the invention of the gas mantle in 1885.

The crystal bar process (or Iodide process) was discovered by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925 to produce high-purity metallic thorium. [3]

The name ionium was given early in the study of radioactive elements to the 230Th isotope produced in the decay chain of 238U before it was realized that ionium and thorium were chemically identical. The symbol Io was used for this supposed element.


[edit] Occurrence

Monazite, a rare-earth-and-thorium-phosphate mineral, is the primary source of the world's thoriumThorium is found in small amounts in most rocks and soils, where it is about three times more abundant than uranium, and is about as common as lead. Soil commonly contains an average of around 12 parts per million (ppm) of thorium. Thorium occurs in several minerals, the most common being the rare earth-thorium-phosphate mineral, monazite, which contains up to about 12% thorium oxide. There are substantial deposits in several countries. 232Th decays very slowly (its half-life is about three times the age of the earth) but other thorium isotopes occur in the thorium and uranium decay chains. Most of these are short-lived and hence much more radioactive than 232Th, though on a mass basis they are negligible. India is believed to have 25% of the world's Thorium reserves. [4]

See also thorium minerals.


[edit] Distribution
Present knowledge of the distribution of Thorium resources is poor because of the relatively low-key exploration efforts arising out of insignificant demand.[5] Under the prevailing estimate, Australia and India have particularly large reserves of thorium.

The prevailing estimate of the economically available thorium reserves comes from the US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries (1997-2006):[6][7]
Country Th Reserves (tonnes) Th Reserve Base (tonnes)
Australia 300,000 340,000
India 290,000 300,000
Norway 170,000 180,000
United States 160,000 300,000
Canada 100,000 100,000
South Africa 35,000 39,000
Brazil 16,000 18,000
Malaysia 4,500 4,500
Other Countries 95,000 100,000
World Total 1,200,000 1,400,000

Another estimate of Reasonably Assured Reserves (RAR) and Estimated Additional Reserves (EAR) of thorium comes from OECD/NEA, Nuclear Energy, "Trends in Nuclear Fuel Cycle", Paris, France (2001)[8]
Country RAR Th (tonnes) EAR Th (tonnes)
Brazil 606,000 700,000
Turkey 380,000 500,000
India 319,000 -
United States 137,000 295,000
Norway 132,000 132,000
Greenland 54,000 32,000
Canada 45,000 128,000
Australia 19,000 -
South Africa 18,000 -
Egypt 15,000 309,000
Other Countries 505,000 -
World Total 2,230,000 2,130,000

The two sources vary wildly for countries such as Brazil, Turkey, and Australia.


[edit] Thorium as a nuclear fuel

Thorium metal foil (approximately 0.5 mm thick) sealed in a glass ampoule under an argon atmosphere to prevent oxidationThorium, as well as uranium and plutonium, can be used as fuel in a nuclear reactor. Although not fissile itself, 232Th will absorb slow neutrons to produce uranium-233 (233U), which is fissile. Hence, like 238U, it is fertile. In one significant respect 233U is better than the other two fissile isotopes used for nuclear fuel, 235U and plutonium-239 (239Pu), because of its higher neutron yield per neutron absorbed. Given a start with some other fissile material (235U or 239Pu), a breeding cycle similar to, but more efficient than that currently possible with the 238U-to-239Pu cycle (in slow-neutron reactors), can be set up. The 232Th absorbs a neutron to become 233Th which normally decays to protactinium-233 (233Pa) and then 233U. The irradiated fuel can then be unloaded from the reactor, the 233U separated from the thorium (a relatively simple process since it involves chemical instead of isotopic separation), and fed back into another reactor as part of a closed nuclear fuel cycle.

Problems include the high cost of fuel fabrication due partly to the high radioactivity of 233U which is a result of its contamination with traces of the short-lived 232U; the similar problems in recycling thorium due to highly radioactive 228Th; some weapons proliferation risk of 233U; and the technical problems (not yet satisfactorily solved) in reprocessing. Much development work is still required before the thorium fuel cycle can be commercialised, and the effort required seems unlikely while (or where) abundant uranium is available.

Nevertheless, the thorium fuel cycle, with its potential for breeding fuel without fast neutron reactors, holds considerable potential long-term benefits. Thorium is significantly more abundant than uranium, and is a key factor in sustainable nuclear energy.

India, having about 25% of the world's reserves [4], has planned its nuclear power program to eventually use thorium exclusively, phasing out uranium as a feed stock. This ambitious plan uses both fast and thermal breeder reactors. The Advanced Heavy Water Reactor and KAMINI reactor are efforts in this direction.

In 2007, Norway was debating whether or not to focus on Thorium plants.

The primary fuel of the HT3R Project in Odessa, TX, will be Ceramic-coated thorium beads.


[edit] Isotopes
Main article: isotopes of thorium
Naturally occurring thorium is composed of one isotope: 232Th. Twenty-seven radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most abundant and/or stable being 232Th with a half-life of 14.05 billion years, 230Th with a half-life of 75,380 years, 229Th with a half-life of 7340 years, and 228Th with a half-life of 1.92 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than thirty days and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than ten minutes. One isotope, 229Th, has a nuclear isomer (or metastable state) with a remarkably low excitation energy of 3.5 eV. [9]

The known isotopes of thorium range in atomic weight from 210 u (210Th)[10] to 236 u (236Th).


[edit] Precautions
Powdered thorium metal is often pyrophoric and should be handled carefully.

Natural thorium decays very slowly compared to many other radioactive materials, and the alpha radiation emitted cannot penetrate human skin. Owning and handling small amounts of thorium, such as a gas mantle, is considered safe if care is taken not to ingest the thorium -- lungs and other internal organs can be penetrated by alpha radiation. Exposure to aerosolized thorium can lead to increased risk of cancers of the lung, pancreas and blood. Exposure to thorium internally leads to increased risk of liver diseases. This element has no known biological role. See also Thorotrast.


[edit] Thorium Extraction
Thorium has been extracted chiefly from monazite through a multi-stage process. In the first stage, the monazite sand is dissolved in an inorganic acid such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In the second, the Thorium is extracted into an organic phase containing an amine. Next it is separated or "stripped" using an anion such as nitrate, chloride, hydroxide, or carbonate, returning the thorium to an aqueous phase. Finally, the thorium is precipitated and collected.[11]


[edit] See also
David Hahn, who produced small quantities of fissionable material in his backyard.
Periodic table
Nuclear reactor
Decay chain
Sylvania Electric Products explosion
Thorium's entries at fictional applications of real materials.

[edit] References
^ Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks, (Hardcover, First Edition), Oxford University Press, page 441. ISBN 0198503407.
^ Thorium. BBC.co. Retrieved on 2007-01-18.
^ van Arkel, A.E.; de Boer, J.H. (1925). "Preparation of pure titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and thorium metal". Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie 148: 345-350. Retrieved on 2006-05-06.
^ a b US approves Indian nuclear deal. BBC News (2006-12-09).
^ K.M.V. Jayaram. An Overview of World Thorium Resources, Incentives for Further Exploration and Forecast for Thorium Requirements in the Near Future.
^ U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries - Thorium.
^ Information and Issue Briefs - Thorium. World Nuclear Association. Retrieved on 2006-11-01.
^ IAEA: Thorium fuel cycle -- Potential benefits and challenges, pp 45(table 8), 97(ref 78).
^ Phys. Rev. C 73 044326 (April 2006)
^ Phys. Rev. C 52, 113–116 (1995)
^ Crouse, David; Brown, Keith (December 1959). "The Amex Process for Extracting Thorium Ores with Alkyl Amines".Industrial & Engineering Chemistry 51 (12): 1461. Retrieved on 2007-03-09
Los Alamos National Laboratory — Thorium
WebElements.com — Thorium
The Uranium Information Centre provided some of the original material in this article.
European Nuclear Society — Natural Decay Chains

[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
ThoriumLook up thorium in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Thorium information page
New Age Nuclear: article on thorium reactors | Cosmos Magazine
ATSDR ToxFAQs — Thorium
USGS data — Thorium
The Endless Refrigerator/Freezer Deodorizer, a commercial product which claimed to destroy odours 'forever.' Made with thorium-232.
Is thorium the answer to our energy crisis?
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium"
Categories: Chemical elements | Actinides | Nuclear materials | Carcinogens | Thorium